Skip to content Skip to sidebar Skip to footer
صفحهٔ اصلی / When Was John James Born When Was John James Style of Art

When Was John James Born When Was John James Style of Art

ارسال یک نظر

American cocky-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist

John James Audubon


FRS

John James Audubon 1826.jpg

Portrait of Audubon past John Syme, 1826
Built-in

Jean-Jacques Rabin


(1785-04-26)Apr 26, 1785

Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue (after Haiti)
Died January 27, 1851(1851-01-27) (aged 65)

New York City, New York, U.Due south.
Citizenship France and United States
Occupation self-trained artist, Naturalist, ornithologist
Spouse(s)

Lucy Bakewell

​

(m. 1808)​
Signature
Audubon signature.svg

John James Audubon (built-in Jean Rabin; April 26, 1785 – Jan 27, 1851) was an American self-trained creative person, naturalist, and ornithologist. His combined interests in fine art and ornithology turned into a plan to make a consummate pictorial record of all the bird species of North America.[1] He was notable for his extensive studies documenting all types of American birds and for his detailed illustrations, which depicted the birds in their natural habitats. His major piece of work, a color-plate book titled The Birds of America (1827–1839), is considered one of the finest ornithological works ever completed. Audubon is also known for identifying 25 new species. He is the eponym of the National Audubon Society, and his name adorns a large number of towns, neighborhoods, and streets in every part of the United States.[two] Dozens of scientific names first published by Audubon are currently in utilise by the scientific community.[three]

Amidst recent reappraisal of figures involved with slavery, the Audubon Naturalist Social club announced in October 2021 that they intended to modify the proper noun, citing Audubon's ownership of slaves, opposition to the abolitionism of slavery, and support for the supposed inferiority of black and ethnic people.[iv]

Early on life [edit]

Audubon was born in Les Cayes in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti)[5] on his male parent'due south sugarcane plantation. He was the son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer) from the south of Brittany,[6] and his mistress, Jeanne Rabine,[7] a 27-year-old chambermaid from Les Touches, Brittany (now in the modern region Pays de la Loire).[6] [viii] They named him Jean Rabin.[8] Some other 1887 biographer has stated that his mother was a lady from a Louisiana plantation.[9] His female parent died when he was a few months one-time, as she had suffered from tropical disease since arriving on the island. His father already had an unknown number of mixed-race children (amid them a girl named Marie-Madeleine),[10] some by his mixed-race housekeeper, Catherine "Sanitte" Bouffard[ten] (described equally a quadroon, pregnant she was three-quarters European in beginnings).[11] Following Jeanne Rabin's expiry, Audubon renewed his relationship with Sanitte Bouffard and had a daughter past her, named Muguet. Bouffard also took intendance of the infant boy Jean.[12]

The senior Audubon had commanded ships. During the American Revolution, he had been imprisoned past U.k.. After his release, he helped the American cause.[thirteen] He had long worked to save money and secure his family'southward future with real manor. Due to slave unrest in the Caribbean area, in 1789 he sold part of his plantation in Saint-Domingue and purchased a 284-acre subcontract chosen Manufacturing plant Grove, 20 miles from Philadelphia, to diversify his investments. Increasing tension in Saint-Domingue betwixt the colonists and the African slaves, who greatly outnumbered them, convinced the senior Jean Audubon to return to French republic, where he became a member of the Republican Baby-sit. In 1788 he bundled for Jean and in 1791 for Muget to be transported to France.[14] [15] [16]

La Gerbetière, mansion owned by Audubon's begetter in Couëron, where young Audubon was raised

The children were raised in Couëron, about Nantes, France, by Audubon and his French wife, Anne Moynet Audubon, whom he had married years before his time in Saint-Domingue. In 1794 they formally adopted both the children to regularize their legal status in France.[15] They renamed the male child Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon and the daughter Rose.[17]

From his earliest days, Audubon had an analogousness for birds. "I felt an intimacy with them...bordering on frenzy [that] must accompany my steps through life."[xviii] His male parent encouraged his interest in nature:

He would point out the elegant movement of the birds, and the beauty and softness of their plumage. He called my attention to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and splendid attire. He would speak of their departure and return with the seasons.[19]

In French republic during the chaotic years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, the younger Audubon grew upward to exist a handsome and gregarious homo. He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance.[20] A dandy walker, he loved roaming in the woods, often returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings.[21] His father planned to make a seaman of his son. At twelve, Audubon went to armed forces school and became a cabin male child. He rapidly establish out that he was susceptible to seasickness and non addicted of mathematics or navigation. Subsequently failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career. He was cheerfully back on solid footing and exploring the fields once more, focusing on birds.[22]

Clearing to the United States [edit]

In 1803, his father obtained a faux passport and so that Jean-Jacques could get to the United States to avert conscription in the Napoleonic Wars. 18-year-onetime Jean-Jacques boarded transport, changing his name to the anglicized form John James Audubon.[23] Jean Audubon and Claude Rozier arranged a business organisation partnership for their sons John James Audubon and [Jean Ferdinand Rozier] to pursue lead mining in Pennsylvania. The Audubon-Rozier partnership was based on Claude Rozier's buying half of Jean Audubon'southward share of a plantation in Haiti, and lending money to the partnership as secured by one-half interest in lead mining at Audubon's holding of Factory Grove.[24] [25]

Audubon caught yellowish fever upon arrival in New York Urban center. The ship'due south captain placed him in a boarding firm run by Quaker women. They nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English, including the Quaker form of using "thee" and "thou", otherwise then archaic. He traveled with the family's Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm Mill Grove.[26] The 284-acre (115 ha) homestead is located on the Perkiomen Creek a few miles from Valley Forge.

Audubon lived with the tenants in the two-story stone house, in an area that he considered a paradise. "Hunting, fishing, drawing, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew not, and cared zero nearly them."[20] Studying his surround, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist'due south dominion, which he wrote downward as, "The nature of the identify—whether high or low, moist or dry, whether sloping north or due south, or bearing tall copse or low shrubs—mostly gives hint as to its inhabitants."[27]

Plate 1 of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a wild turkey

His father hoped that the atomic number 82 mines on the belongings could be commercially developed, equally lead was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his son with a profitable occupation.[28] At Manufacturing plant Grove, Audubon met the owner of the nearby Fatland Ford estate, William Bakewell, and his daughter Lucy Bakewell.

Audubon set about to study American birds, determined to illustrate his findings in a more than realistic manner than most artists did and so.[29] He began drawing and painting birds, and recording their behavior. Later an adventitious fall into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side.

Risking conscription in France, Audubon returned in 1805 to encounter his male parent and ask permission to marry. He also needed to discuss family business plans. While there, he met the naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of research.[30] Although his return ship was overtaken by an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden gilt coins survived the encounter.[31]

Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired past the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon'due south room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become adept at specimen preparation and taxidermy.

Deeming the mining venture too risky, with his father's approval Audubon sold part of the Mill Grove farm, including the firm and mine, but retaining some land for investment.[32]

Banding experiment with Eastern Phoebes [edit]

In book two of Ornithological Biography (1834), Audubon told a story from his childhood, 30 years after the events reportedly took place, that has since garnered him the label of "first bird bander in America".[33] The story has since been exposed as likely apocryphal.[34] In the spring of 1804, according to the story, Audubon discovered a nest of the "Pewee Flycatcher", now known every bit Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), in a small grotto on the belongings of Mill Grove. To determine whether the other phoebes on the property were "descended from the aforementioned stock", Audubon (1834:126) said that he tied silvery threads to the legs of 5 nestlings:

I took the whole family out, and blew off the exuviae of the feathers from the nest. I attached light threads to their legs: these they invariably removed, either with their bills, or with the help of their parents. I renewed them, however, until I found the fiddling fellows habituated to them; and at last, when they were well-nigh to leave the nest, I fixed a calorie-free silver thread to the leg of each, loose enough not to hurt the role, simply and then fastened that no exertions of theirs could remove it.[35]

He also said that he had "ample proof afterwards that the brood of young Pewees, raised in the cavern, returned the post-obit leap, and established themselves further up on the creek, and among the outhouses in the neighbourhood … having caught several of these birds on the nest, [he] had the pleasure of finding that two of them had the little band on the leg", but multiple independent principal sources (including original, dated drawings of European species[36]) demonstrate that Audubon was in French republic during the spring of 1805, not in Pennsylvania as he afterward claimed.[34] Furthermore, Audubon's merits to have re-sighted 2 out of 5 of the banded phoebes as adults (i.due east., a 40% rate of natal philopatry) has non been replicated by modern studies with much larger sample sizes (e.g., 1.6% rate among 549 nestlings banded; and 1.3% rate among 217 nestlings banded).[37] These facts cast doubt on the truth of Audubon's story.[34]

Marriage and family [edit]

Plate from The Birds of America past Audubon of a Carolina pigeon (now called mourning dove)

In 1808, Audubon moved to Kentucky, which was rapidly being settled. Six months later, he married Lucy Bakewell at her family estate, Fatland Ford, and took her the side by side twenty-four hour period to Kentucky. The two immature people shared many mutual interests, and early on began to spend fourth dimension together, exploring the natural world around them. Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family. They had two sons, Victor Gifford (1809–1860) and John Woodhouse Audubon (1812–1862), and two daughters who died while still immature, Lucy at two years (1815–1817) and Rose at 9 months (1819–1820).[38] Both sons eventually helped publish their begetter'southward works. John W. Audubon became a naturalist, writer, and painter in his own right.[39]

Starting out in business [edit]

Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier moved their merchant business organization partnership west at various stages, catastrophe ultimately in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, a old French colonial settlement west of the Mississippi River and south of St. Louis. Shipping appurtenances alee, Audubon and Rozier started a general shop in Louisville, Kentucky on the Ohio River;[ when? ] the city had an increasingly important slave market and was the most of import port between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. Presently he was drawing bird specimens once again. He regularly burned his earlier efforts to strength continuous comeback.[40] He also took detailed field notes to document his drawings.

Due to rising tensions with the British, President Jefferson ordered an embargo on British trade in 1808, adversely affecting Audubon's trading business.[41] In 1810, Audubon moved his business further westward to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky, area. He and his small family took over an abandoned log cabin. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier clothes and moccasins, having "a brawl pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt".[41]

He oftentimes turned to hunting and line-fishing to feed his family, as concern was slow. On a prospecting trip downward the Ohio River with a load of appurtenances, Audubon joined up with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting "like brethren".[42] Audubon had bang-up respect for Native Americans: "Whenever I meet Indians, I feel the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for there I see the man naked from His hand and still gratuitous from acquired sorrow."[43] Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.[44]

Audubon and Rozier mutually agreed to end their partnership at Ste. Genevieve on April vi, 1811. Audubon had decided to work at ornithology and art, and wanted to return to Lucy and their son in Kentucky. Rozier agreed to pay Audubon Usa$3,000 (equivalent to $48,858 in 2021), with $ane,000 in cash and the residuum to exist paid over fourth dimension.[45] [46] [47]

The terms of the dissolution of the partnership include those by Audubon:

I John Audubon, having this solar day mutual consent with Ferdinand Rozier, dissolved and forever closed the partnership and firm of Audubon and Rozier, and having Received from said Ferdinand Rozier payment and notes to the total amount of my office of the goods and debts of the belatedly firm of Audubon and Rozier, I the said John Audubon one of the firm aforesaid do hereby release and forever quit claim to all and any interest which I have or may take in the stock on hand and debts due to the tardily firm of Audubon and Rozier assign, transfer and set over to said Ferdinand Rozier, all my rights, titles, claims and interest in the goods, merchandise and debts due to the late firm of Audubon and Rozier, and exercise hereby authorize and empower him for my function, to collect the same in any manner what ever either privately or by suit or suits in law or disinterestedness hereby declaring him sole and absolute proprietor and rightful owner of all goods, merchandise and debts of this house aforesaid, as completely equally they were the goods and property of the late firm Audubon and Rozier.

In witness thereof I have set my hand and seal this 6th 24-hour interval of April 1811

John Audubon

Ed D. DeVillamonte

John James Audubon house, Henderson, Kentucky.

Audubon was working in Missouri and out riding when the 1811 New Madrid earthquake struck. When Audubon reached his firm, he was relieved to notice no major damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months.[48] The quake is estimated by scholars to have ranked from 8.4 to 8.eight on today's moment magnitude scale of severity, stronger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 which is estimated at 7.8. Audubon writes that while on horseback, he first believed the distant rumbling to be the sound of a tornado,

but the animal knew ameliorate than I what was forthcoming, and instead of going faster, then almost stopped that I remarked he placed one foot after another on the basis with as much precaution as if walking on a smooth piece of ice. I thought he had suddenly foundered, and, speaking to him, was on point of dismounting and leading him, when he of a sudden roughshod a-groaning piteously, hung his head, spread out his forelegs, as if to salvage himself from falling, and stood stock however, continuing to groan. I thought my horse was virtually to die, and would have sprung from his back had a minute more than elapsed; simply as that instant all the shrubs and copse began to movement from their very roots, the ground rose and fell in successive furrows, like the ruffled water of a lake, and I became bewildered in my ideas, as I too plainly discovered, that all this awful commotion was the event of an earthquake. I had never witnessed anything of the kind before, although like every person, I knew earthquakes by clarification. But what is description compared to reality! Who can tell the sensations which I experienced when I constitute myself rocking, every bit it were, upon my horse, and with him moving to and fro similar a kid in a cradle, with the virtually imminent danger around me.[49]

He noted that as the earthquake retreated, "the air was filled with an extremely disagreeable sulphurous smell."[50]

Citizenship and debt [edit]

A cinnamon bear by J.T. Bowen later on Audubon

During a visit to Philadelphia in 1812 following Congress' announcement of war against Great Uk, Audubon became an American citizen and had to surrender his French citizenship.[51] After his return to Kentucky, he institute that rats had eaten his unabridged collection of more 200 drawings. After weeks of depression, he took to the field over again, determined to re-do his drawings to an even higher standard.[52]

The War of 1812 upset Audubon's plans to move his business concern to New Orleans. He formed a partnership with Lucy's brother and built up their trade in Henderson. Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were good. Audubon bought state and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his growing family. Afterwards 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt. The piffling money he earned was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by state folk before photography.[53] He wrote, "[Chiliad]y heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I enough to continue my dear ones alive; and however through these dark days I was being led to the development of the talents I loved."[54]

Early ornithological career [edit]

Plate 181 of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a gold eagle, 1833–34

Audubon worked for a brief time as the kickoff paid employee of the Western History Society, now known as The Museum of Natural History at The Cincinnati Museum Center.[55] He and then traveled due south on the Mississippi with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, who stayed with him from October 1820 to August 1822 and painted the plant life backgrounds of many of Audubon's bird studies. He was committed to find and paint all the birds of N America for eventual publication. His goal was to surpass the earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.[56] Though he could non afford to purchase Wilson'southward work, Audubon used information technology to guide him when he had admission to a re-create.

In 1818, Rafinesque visited Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to study fishes and was a guest of Audubon. In the middle of the night, Rafinesque noticed a bat in his room and thought it was a new species. He happened to grab Audubon's favourite violin in an endeavor to knock the bat downward, resulting in the devastation of the violin. Audubon reportedly took revenge past showing drawings and describing some fictitious fishes and rodents to Rafinesque; Rafinesque gave scientific names to some of these fishes in his Ichthyologia Ohiensis.[57] [58]

On October 12, 1820, Audubon traveled into Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens. He traveled with George Lehman, a professional Swiss landscape artist. The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, where he taught drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of the owners. Though low-paying, the chore was ideal, as information technology afforded him much fourth dimension to roam and paint in the woods. (The plantation has been preserved equally the Audubon Land Celebrated Site, and is located at 11788 Highway 965, betwixt Jackson and St. Francisville.)

Audubon chosen his future piece of work The Birds of America. He attempted to paint i page each day. Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his before works were inferior and re-did them.[59] He hired hunters to get together specimens for him. Audubon realized the ambitious project would take him away from his family for months at a fourth dimension.

Audubon sometimes used his cartoon talent to merchandise for goods or sell small works to heighten greenbacks. He made charcoal portraits on demand at $5 each and gave drawing lessons.[lx] In 1823, Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a teacher of American landscape, and history painter Thomas Cole. Though he did not employ oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned good money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi. (Audubon's account reveals that he learned oil painting in December 1822 from Jacob Stein, an itinerant portrait artist. Later on they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage to be expected in Natchez, Mississippi, during January–March 1823, they resolved to travel together every bit perambulating portrait-artists.)[61] [62] During this period (1822–1823), Audubon as well worked as an instructor at Jefferson Higher in Washington, Mississippi.

Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their ii young sons. Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children in their abode. Afterward she was hired as a local teacher in Louisiana. She boarded with their children at the home of a wealthy plantation owner, as was oft the custom of the time.[61] [63]

In 1824, Audubon returned to Philadelphia to seek a publisher for his bird drawings. He took oil painting lessons from Thomas Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his piece of work and recommended he become to Europe to accept his bird drawings engraved.[64] Audubon was nominated for membership at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Reuben Haines, and Isaiah Lukens, on July 27, 1824.[65] All the same, he failed to assemble enough support, and his nomination was rejected by vote on August 31, 1824;[65] around the aforementioned time accusations of scientific misconduct were levied by Alexander Lawson and others.[66]

The Birds of America [edit]

With his wife's support, in 1826 at historic period 41, Audubon took his growing collection of work to England. He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on the cotton wool-hauling ship Delos, reaching England in the autumn of 1826 with his portfolio of over 300 drawings.[67] With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, and paintings of imaginary species including the "Bird of Washington",[68] Audubon gained their quick attending. "I take been received here in a manner non to be expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes."[69]

The British could non become enough of Audubon'southward images of backwoods America and its natural attractions. He met with great credence equally he toured around England and Scotland, and was lionized as "the American woodsman". He raised plenty money to begin publishing his The Birds of America. This monumental piece of work consists of 435 hand-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates of diverse sizes depending on the size of the image. They were printed on sheets measuring most 39 by 26 inches (990 by 660 mm).[lxx] The piece of work illustrates slightly more than 700 North American bird species, of which some were based on specimens collected by fellow ornithologist John Kirk Townsend on his journey across America with Thomas Nuttall in 1834 as part of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth'southward second expedition across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Sea.[71] [72]

The pages were organized for artistic issue and contrasting interest, as if the reader were taking a visual bout. (Some critics thought he should accept organized the plates in Linnaean order every bit conforming a "serious" ornithological treatise.)[73] The first and perchance well-nigh famous plate was the wild turkey. Among the primeval plates printed was the "Bird of Washington", which generated favorable publicity for Audubon equally his first discovery of a new species. Even so, no specimen of the species has ever been found, and research published in 2020 suggests that this plate was a mixture of plagiarism and ornithological fraud.[74]

The toll of printing the unabridged piece of work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from accelerate subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.[70] Audubon's great work was a remarkable accomplishment. It took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the projection to make information technology a success. A reviewer wrote,

All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its start had passed away. The prophecies of kind merely overprudent friends, who did not understand his cocky-sustaining energy, had proved untrue; the malicious hope of his enemies, for even the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding place in the respect and gratitude of men.[75]

Colorists applied each color in assembly-line fashion (over fifty were hired for the piece of work).[76] The original edition was engraved in aquatint by Robert Havell, Jr., who took over the job later the offset 10 plates engraved by W. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Known as the Double Elephant folio for its double elephant paper size, information technology is often regarded as the greatest motion picture book ever produced and the finest aquatint work. By the 1830s the aquatint process had been largely superseded by lithography.[77] A gimmicky French critic wrote, "A magic ability transported us into the forests which for and then many years this man of genius has trod. Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle ... It is a real and palpable vision of the New World."[78]

Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra money and publicize the book. A potential publisher had Audubon'south portrait painted past John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier apparel; the portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic prototype. The painting is now held in the White House art drove, and is not frequently displayed.[79] The New-York Historical Order holds all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for The Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to the society after her hubby'southward decease. All but 80 of the original copper plates were melted down when Lucy Audubon, desperate for money, sold them for fleck to the Phelps Dodge Corporation.[fourscore]

King George 4 was among the gorging fans of Audubon and subscribed to support publication of the book. Great britain's Purple Society recognized Audubon's accomplishment by electing him equally a beau. He was the second American to be elected after statesman Benjamin Franklin. While in Edinburgh to seek subscribers for the volume, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of supporting birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Clan. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon as well visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox. Audubon was also successful in France, gaining the Male monarch and several of the nobility as subscribers.[81]

Roseate Spoonbill

The Birds of America became very popular during Europe'southward Romantic era.[82] Audubon's dramatic portraits of birds appealed to people in this catamenia's fascination with natural history.[82] [83] [84]

Later on career [edit]

Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more than drawings for his magnum opus. He too hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends. He was reunited with his family. After settling business organisation affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England. Audubon found that during his absenteeism, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates. Others were in arrears in their payments. His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, but a few begged off. He responded, "The Birds of America will and then raise in value as much as they are at present depreciated by certain fools and envious persons."[85] He was elected a Fellow of the American University of Arts and Sciences[86] in 1830 and to the American Philosophical Club[87] in 1831.

He followed The Birds of America with a sequel Ornithological Biographies. This was a drove of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The ii books were printed separately to avoid a British constabulary requiring copies of all publications with text to exist deposited in copyright libraries, a huge financial burden for the self-published Audubon.[88] Both books were published between 1827 and 1839.

During the 1830s, Audubon connected making expeditions in North America. During a trip to Key West, a companion wrote in a paper commodity, "Mr. Audubon is the nearly enthusiastic and indefatigable man I ever knew ... Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by heat, fatigue, or bad luck ... he rose every morn at 3 o'clock and went out ... until one o'clock." Then he would describe the residue of the solar day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months.[89] In the posthumously published volumeThe Life of John James Audubon The Naturalist,[49] edited by his widow and derived primarily from his notes, Audubon related visiting the northeastern Florida coastal saccharide plantation of John Joachim Bulow for Christmas 1831/early January 1832. It was started by his father and at 4,675 acres, was the largest in Due east Florida.[90] Bulow had a sugar mill built there under direction of a Scottish engineer, who accompanied Audubon on an excursion in the region. The mill was destroyed in 1836 in the Seminole Wars. The plantation site is preserved today as the Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic Land Park.[xc]

In March 1832, Audubon booked passage at St. Augustine, Florida, aboard the schooner Agnes, bound for Charleston, South Carolina. A gale forced the vessel to berth at the rima oris of the Savannah River, where an officer of the U.s. Ground forces Corps of Engineers on Cockspur Island where Fort Pulaski was under construction, transported Audubon upstream to Savannah, Georgia, on their barge. Just equally he was near to board a Charleston-bound stage charabanc, he remembered William Gaston, a Savannah resident who had once befriended him. Audubon stayed at Urban center Hotel, and the next solar day sought out and constitute the associate, "who showed but little enthusiasm for his Birds of America" and who doubted that the book would sell a unmarried copy in the city.[91] A dejected Audubon connected to talk to the merchant and a mutual friend who, by risk, had appeared. The merchant, having farther considered his position, said, "I subscribe to your work", gave him $200 for the first volume, and promised to act as his agent in finding additional subscriptions.[91]

In 1833, Audubon sailed north from Maine, accompanied by his son John, and 5 other young colleagues, to explore the ornithology of Labrador. On the return voyage, their ship Ripley made a stop at St. George's, Newfoundland. There Audubon and his assistants documented 36 species of birds.[92]

Audubon painted some of his works while staying at the Key Westward house and gardens of Capt. John H. Geiger. This site was preserved equally the Audubon House and Tropical Gardens.[93]

In 1841, having finished the Ornithological Biographies, Audubon returned to the United States with his family. He bought an estate on the Hudson River in northern Manhattan. (The roughly 20-acre estate came to be known as Audubon Park in the 1860s when Audubon'southward widow began selling off parcels of the estate for the development of free-continuing single family unit homes.)[94] Between 1840 and 1844, he published an octavo edition of The Birds of America, with 65 boosted plates.[95] Printed in standard format to be more than affordable than the oversize British edition, it earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers.[96] Audubon spent much time on "subscription-gathering trips", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, equally he hoped to leave his family a sizeable income.[97]

Death [edit]

Audubon fabricated some excursions out W where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, only his health began to fail. In 1848, he manifested signs of senility or possibly dementia from what is at present called Alzheimer's disease, his "noble listen in ruins".[98] He died at his family home in northern Manhattan on Jan 27, 1851. Audubon is buried in the graveyard at the Church of the Intercession in the Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan, near his home. An imposing monument in his honour was erected at the cemetery, which is now recognized as part of the Heritage Rose District of NYC.[99]

Audubon's final piece of work dealt with mammals; he prepared The Viviparous Quadrupeds of N America (1845–1849) in collaboration with his good friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina, who supplied much of the scientific text. His son, John Woodhouse Audubon, drew well-nigh of the plates. The piece of work was completed by Audubon's sons, and the second book was published posthumously in 1851.

Fine art and methods [edit]

Audubon developed his own methods for drawing birds. Commencement, he killed them using fine shot. He then used wires to prop them into a natural position, unlike the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and stuffed the specimens into a rigid pose. When working on a major specimen like an hawkeye, he would spend upwards to 4 xv-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing information technology.[100] His paintings of birds are ready true-to-life in their natural habitat. He frequently portrayed them as if caught in motion, specially feeding or hunting. This was in stark contrast to the potent representations of birds past his contemporaries, such as Alexander Wilson. Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations. He worked primarily with watercolor early on. He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, especially those of owls and herons.[101] He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache. All species were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them inside the page size.[102] Smaller species were usually placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers. He used several birds in a drawing to present all views of anatomy and wings. Larger birds were often placed in their footing habitat or perching on stumps. At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on one page to offering contrasting features. He oftentimes depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such as snakes. He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles. In later on drawings, Audubon used assistants to render the habitat for him. In add-on to faithful renderings of anatomy, Audubon also employed advisedly constructed composition, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to achieve creative too as scientific furnishings.

  • Detail from the next image

Dispute over accuracy [edit]

The success of Birds of America may be considered to be marred by numerous accusations of plagiarism and scientific fraud.[34] [68] [103] [66] [104] Research has uncovered that Audubon falsified (and made) scientific data,[58] [105] published fraudulent data and images in scientific journals and commercial books,[34] [68] [103] invented new species to print potential subscribers,[68] and to "prank" rivals,[58] [105] and nigh probable stole the holotype specimen of Harris'due south militarist (Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi) before pretending not to know its collector, who was ane of his subscribers.[106] He failed to credit work by Joseph Mason, prompting a series of articles in 1835 past critic John Neal questioning Audubon's honesty and trustworthiness.[107] Audubon as well repeatedly lied well-nigh the details of his autobiography, including the place and circumstances of his nascence.[108]

The litany of misconduct in Audubon'southward scientific career has fatigued comparisons to others such equally Richard Meinertzhagen.[68] Similar to early biographies of Meinertzhagen, Audubon'south scientific misconduct has been repeatedly ignored and/or downplayed by biographers,[34] [68] [104] who defend Ornithological Biography as a "valuable resource and a very good read".[109]

Legacy [edit]

Audubon in later years, c. 1850

Audubon'south influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching. Nearly all later ornithological works were inspired by his artistry and high standards. Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in On the Origin of Species and also in subsequently works.[110] Despite some errors in field observations, he made a significant contribution to the agreement of bird beefcake and behavior through his field notes. The Birds of America is still considered one of the greatest examples of book fine art. Audubon discovered 25 new species and 12 new subspecies.[111]

  • He was elected to the Royal Gild of Edinburgh, the Linnean Society, and the Royal Club in recognition of his contributions.
  • The homestead Mill Grove in Audubon, Pennsylvania, is open up to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including The Birds of America.
  • The Audubon Museum at John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky, houses many of Audubon'south original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia.
  • In 1905, the National Audubon Gild was incorporated and named in his honor. Its mission "is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds ..."
  • He was honored in 1940 past the United states Post Function with a ane cent Famous Americans Series postage stamp postage; the stamp is dark-green.
  • He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 22¢ Great Americans series postage stamp postage stamp.
  • On December 6, 2010, a copy of The Birds of America was sold at a Sotheby'due south auction for $11.5 million, the second highest price for a single printed book.[112]
  • On April 26, 2011, Google celebrated his 226th birthday past displaying a special Google Doodle on its global homepage.[113]
  • Audubon'due south life and contributions to scientific discipline and art was the subject of the 2017 motion picture Audubon.

Audubon in pop culture [edit]

Audubon is the subject of the 1969 book-length poem, Audubon: A Vision past Robert Penn Warren.[114] Stephen Vincent Benét, with his married woman Rosemary Benét, included a poem about Audubon in the children's poetry book A Book of Americans.[115]

Audubon'southward 1833 trip to Labrador is the subject of the novel Creation by Katherine Govier.[116] Audubon and his wife, Lucy, are the chief characters in the "June" section of the Maureen Howard novel Big as Life: Three Tales for Jump.[117] In the novel Audubon'southward Watch, John Gregory Brown explores a mysterious decease that took place on a Louisiana plantation when Audubon worked there as a young man.[118]

George Voskovec plays Audubon in the 1952 American film The Iron Mistress, which stars Alan Ladd as James Bowie. The film imagines a friendship betwixt the two men.

In 1985, The National Gallery of Art 20C History Project produced a documentary, "John James Audubon: The Birds of America", now widely available online.

In July 2007, PBS's American Masters series aired an episode titled "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature," [119] Supplemental material is bachelor on the PBS website.

Audubon appears in the brusk story "Audubon In Atlantis" by Harry Turtledove, published in the 2010 collection Atlantis and Other Places.[120]

The choral oratorio Audubon past James Kallembach was premiered on Nov nine, 2018, in Boston, Massachusetts by Chorus pro Musica.[121] The piece of work depicts scenes of Audubon's life and descriptions of the birds he drew with text drawn from the 2004 biography by Richard Rhodes.[122]

Places named in his honor [edit]

  • Audubon Park and Zoo in New Orleans, where he lived beginning in 1821.
  • Audubon and Audubon Park, both in New Jersey. Many streets in Audubon Park are named after birds fatigued by him.
  • Audubon, Pennsylvania, also has the Audubon Bird Sanctuary. Most of the streets in this small town are named after birds that he drew.
  • Audubon Nature Institute, a family unit of museums, parks, and other organizations in New Orleans, eight of which acquit the Audubon proper name.
  • Audubon Park and country club in Louisville, Kentucky, is in the surface area of his former full general store.
  • Several towns and Audubon County, Iowa.
  • John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River), connecting Pointe Coupee and W Feliciana Parishes; over thirty of Audubon'southward bird paintings were created in Westward Feliciana Parish.
  • The northbound span of the Bi-Country Vietnam Gold Star Bridges was originally named the Audubon Memorial Bridge.
  • Audubon Park, in Memphis, Tennessee, is associated with the nearby Botanic Garden.
  • John James Audubon State Park and the Audubon Museum (located inside the park) in Henderson, Kentucky.
  • Audubon Parkway, too in Kentucky, is a express-access highway connecting Henderson with Owensboro, Kentucky.
  • Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Nantes and Rue Audubon in Paris, French republic.
  • Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
  • Lycée Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
  • Marais Audubon between Couëron and St Etienne de Mont-luc, France.
  • Audubon Circle, a major intersection and neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts; Park Drive (parkway), which runs through the Audubon Circle, was formerly named Audubon Road.
  • John James Audubon Parkway in Amherst, New York.
  • Audubon Avenue in New York, New York.
  • Audubon Bird Sanctuary, Dauphin Isle, Alabama[123]
  • Audubon National Wild fauna Refuge, Coleharbor, Due north Dakota
  • Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Northeast Minneapolis, Minnesota.
  • Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Orlando, Florida. The streets are named after birds, such equally Falcon Drive and Raven Road.
  • Wildcat Glades Conservation and Audubon Center in Joplin, Missouri.
  • Audubon International, a 501(c)(three) not-for-turn a profit organization that administers a broad range of environmental education and certification programs on properties such as golf courses, hotels, school campuses, ski areas, cemeteries, corporate parks, and agricultural lands.[124]
  • The Scioto Audubon Metro Park in Columbus, Ohio[125]
  • Audubon Recreation Center in Garland, Texas.[126]
  • Mount Audubon (13223 ft), Colorado
  • Audubon Loftier Schoolhouse in Camden Canton, New Jersey, and many master schools effectually the United States
  • Audubon Golf Trail - a collection of golf courses spread throughout Louisiana
  • John James Audubon Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois.[127]
  • Pascagoula River Audubon Centre in Moss Point, Mississippi.[128]
  • Audubon House & Gallery in Key West, Florida.[129]
  • Audubon Street, home to the Audubon Arts Commune and The Audubon New Haven flat building, in New Haven, Connecticut

Surviving bird specimens [edit]

Some of Audubon'due south bird specimens survive in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London,[130] the University of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,[131] and in that location are 5 specimens in the collections of Globe Museum, National Museums Liverpool.

Works [edit]

Posthumous collections [edit]

  • John James Audubon, Selected Journals and Other Writings (Ben Forkner, ed.) (Penguin Nature Classics, 1996) ISBN 0-fourteen-024126-4
  • John James Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.) (The Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-68-0
  • John James Audubon, The Audubon Reader (Richard Rhodes, ed.) (Everyman Library, 2006) ISBN i-4000-4369-7
  • Audubon: Early Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Press and Houghton Library 2008) ISBN 978-0-674-03102-nine
  • John James Audubon, Audubon and His Journals (The European Journals 1826–1829, the Labrador Journal 1833, the Missouri River Journals 1843), edited past Maria Audubon, volumes 1 and two, originally published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1897 (in Wikisource-logo.svg Wikisource).

See also [edit]

  • Audubon Firm and Tropical Gardens, Key West, Florida
  • Audubon International
  • Audubon Landscape Project
  • Audubon Park Historic District, New York City
  • Audubon Land Historic Site, West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
  • List of wild fauna artists
  • National Audubon Gild
  • Passenger dove

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford Academy Press. 1985–1993. p. 26. ISBN0-19-869129-7. OCLC 11814265. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  2. ^ "Home". Audubon . Retrieved Baronial 6, 2020.
  3. ^ "Avibase avant-garde search: [Author = "Audubon"]". Avibase: The Earth Bird Database . Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  4. ^ Milman, Oliver (Oct 25, 2021). "US conservation grouping to drop Audubon name over 'pain' acquired by slaveholder". The Guardian.
  5. ^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Messages. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 26. ISBN 0-86576-008-X
  6. ^ a b Rhodes, Richard John James Audubon: The Making of an American, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004, p. 4, accessed April 26, 2011.
  7. ^ Sometimes, it is written "Rabin"
  8. ^ a b Souder 2005, p. 18
  9. ^ The Popular scientific discipline monthly. MBLWHOI Library. [New York, Pop Science Pub. Co., etc.] 1887. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  10. ^ a b DeLatt, Carolyne E., Lucy Audubon: A Biography (LSU Press, 2008), p. 21
  11. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p. half-dozen
  12. ^ Souder 2005, p. nineteen
  13. ^ Alice Ford, Audubon By Himself, The Natural History Press, Garden City, NY: 1969, p. 4
  14. ^ Rhodes, JJ Audubon (2004), p. half dozen
  15. ^ a b Souder 2005, p. 20
  16. ^ Shirley Streshinsky, Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness, Villard Books, New York, 1993, ISBN 0-679-40859-2, p. xiii
  17. ^ Stanley Clisby Arthur, Audubon" An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman (Pelican Publishing, 1937), p. 478
  18. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 22
  19. ^ Ford 1969, p. three
  20. ^ a b Rhodes 2004, p. 5
  21. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. xiv
  22. ^ Streshinsky 1993, pp. sixteen–17
  23. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), pp. 3–iv
  24. ^ Sharpe, Mary Rozier and James, Louis, Between the Gabouri, History of the Rozier Family, 1981
  25. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p.
  26. ^ "National Gallery of Art". Nga.gov. Archived from the original on April 12, 2010. Retrieved Dec ten, 2010.
  27. ^ Ford 1969, p. x
  28. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 24
  29. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. xi
  30. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 39
  31. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 32
  32. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 38
  33. ^ Gill, Frank (2006). Ornithology. West. H. Freeman; Tertiary edition. ISBN978-0-7167-4983-seven.
  34. ^ a b c d e f Halley, Matthew R. (2018). "Audubon's famous banding experiment: fact or fiction?". Archives of Natural History. 45: 118–121. doi:x.3366/anh.2018.0487.
  35. ^ Audubon, John James (1834). Ornithological Biography, volume 2. Vol. 2. Edinburgh, Scotland: Adam & Charles Black.
  36. ^ "Drove: John James Audubon letters and drawings | HOLLIS for". hollisarchives.lib.harvard.edu . Retrieved Baronial 6, 2020.
  37. ^ Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Forbes, Mark R. L. (December 1, 1994). "Natal philopatry in passerine birds: genetic or ecological influences?". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (iv): 426–433. doi:ten.1093/beheco/5.4.426. ISSN 1045-2249.
  38. ^ "John James Audubon Timeline", American Masters, PBS. Retrieved February 7, 2009.
  39. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and annals of important events of the year: 1862. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1863. p. 672.
  40. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 55
  41. ^ a b Streshinsky 1993, p. 64
  42. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 83–85
  43. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 166
  44. ^ Ford 1969, p. 24
  45. ^ Agreement from Francis Hobart Herrick, Ph.D., Sc.D.D., Audubon the Naturalist: A History of His Life and Time. Appleton and Company, New York, London, 1917, p. 359.
  46. ^ Original mitt-written receipt of the financial commutation per the Understanding, Missouri Historical Order, St. Louis, Missouri. "Ste. Genevieve Apr 6, 1811, $one,000.000, Six Months afterwards date I promise to pay Mr. John Audubon or Orders I Chiliad Dollars Value without (unreadable). Signed Ferdinand Rozier (signature torn off), Witnessed: John Lecite, John McAuthur"
  47. ^ Rozier, Firmin A. (1890). History of the Early on Settlement of the Mississippi Valley.
  48. ^ Ford 1969, p. 56
  49. ^ a b His widow, ed. (1869). The Life of John James Audubon the Naturalist. New York: G. P. Putnam & Son.
  50. ^ Ford 1969, p. 57
  51. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 105
  52. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 116
  53. ^ Ford 1969, p. 85
  54. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 143
  55. ^ "An exhibition opening for In the Audubon Tradition". Cincy Museum Center . Retrieved Nov 7, 2019.
  56. ^ Ford 1969, p. 25
  57. ^ Markle, Douglas F. (1997). "Audubon's hoax: Ohio River fishes described by Rafinesque". Athenaeum of Natural History. 24 (3): 439–447. doi:10.3366/anh.1997.24.3.439.
  58. ^ a b c Woodman, Neal (2016). "Pranked by Audubon: Constantine South. Rafinesque'southward clarification of John James Audubon's imaginary Kentucky mammals" (PDF). Archives of Natural History. 43 (1): 95–108. doi:10.3366/anh.2016.0349.
  59. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 209
  60. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 102
  61. ^ a b Punke, p. 21
  62. ^ Arthur, pp. 256–57
  63. ^ Arthur, pp. 258–59
  64. ^ Punke, p. 225
  65. ^ a b Halley, Matthew R. (2018). "Lost Tales of American Ornithology: Reuben Haines and the Canada Geese of Wyck (1818–1828)" (PDF). Cassinia. 76: 63.
  66. ^ a b Dunlap, William (1834). History of the ascent and progress of the arts of design in the United States, Volume 2. New York, NY: George P. Scott & Co., New York.
  67. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 237
  68. ^ a b c d east f Halley, Matthew R. (June 2020). "Audubon's Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Message of the British Ornithologists' Club. 140 (ii): 110–141. doi:10.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3. ISSN 0007-1595.
  69. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 261
  70. ^ a b Rhodes 2004, p. 403
  71. ^ Mearns, B. & R., John Kirk Townsend: Collector of Audubon'southward Western Birds and Mammals (2007)
  72. ^ Townsend, John Kirk, Excursion to the Oregon, Edinburgh: West. and R. Chambers, 1846
  73. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 303
  74. ^ Halley, Matthew R. (June 22, 2020). "Audubon'due south Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 140 (2): 110–141. doi:10.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3.
  75. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 328
  76. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 273, 389
  77. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 300
  78. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 279
  79. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 276
  80. ^ "John James Audubon Chronicle", Cleveland Museum of Natural History, printing release, February 1, 2007 Archived July 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  81. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 316
  82. ^ a b National Audubon Club Inc. (n.d.) John James Audubon Retrieved from [1]
  83. ^ Lyons, Yard. (2011). Books A Living History. Los Angeles, California: Getty Publications.
  84. ^ Lyons 2011, pp. 135–36
  85. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 392
  86. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
  87. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org . Retrieved Apr 8, 2021.
  88. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 273
  89. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 366
  90. ^ a b "Dedication ceremonies for Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic State Park – Bunnell, Florida", Florida Memory, accessed March 14, 2015.
  91. ^ a b Ease and Elegance, Madeira and Murder: The Social Life of Savannah'southward City Hotel, Malcolm Bong, Jr. (1992), p. 558
  92. ^ Tuck, Leslie. Montevecchi, William. Nuttall Ornithological Club. Newfoundland Birds, Exploitation, Study, Conservation, Harvard University Press, 1987.
  93. ^ Cox, C. 1983. A Key W Companion. Macmillan. pp. 49–51. ISBN 0-312-45183-0
  94. ^ Near, Jennifer L. et al. Audubon Park Historic District Designation Study New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (May 12, 2009), p. 3, paragraph 2.
  95. ^ Audubon, John James (1840–1844). The Birds of America: From Drawings Made in the United States and their Territories. New York: J.B. Chevalier – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  96. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 430
  97. ^ Chancellor, John (1978). Audubon : A Biography. New York: Viking Press. p. 210. ISBN978-0-670-14053-four.
  98. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 361
  99. ^ "What is the Heritage Rose Commune of NYC?". mbpo.org. Archived from the original on July xviii, 2011.
  100. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 375
  101. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 163
  102. ^ Gardner, Albert TenEyck (1963). "John James Audubon and Campephilus Principalis". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 21 (9): 309–316. doi:10.2307/3257944. ISSN 0026-1521. JSTOR 3257944.
  103. ^ a b Ord, George (1840). "Minutes from the Stated Meeting, September 18 [1840]". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Gild. 1: 272.
  104. ^ a b Hunter, Clark (1983). The Life and Messages of Alexander Wilson. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Memoirs of the American Philosophical Club. ISBN978-0-87169-154-v.
  105. ^ a b MARKLE, DOUGLAS F. (October 1, 1997). "Audubon's hoax: Ohio River fishes described past Rafinesque". Archives of Natural History. 24 (three): 439–447. doi:10.3366/anh.1997.24.3.439. ISSN 0260-9541.
  106. ^ Fries, Waldemar H. (2006). The Double Elephant Page. Zenaida Publishing Co. ISBN978-0-9770829-0-ii.
  107. ^ Richards, Irving T. (May 1934). "Audubon, Joseph R. Stonemason, and John Neal". American Literature. vi (2): 122–140. doi:ten.2307/2919790. JSTOR 2919790.
  108. ^ DALLETT, FRANCIS JAMES (1959). "Citizen Audubon: A Documentary Discovery". The Princeton University Library Chronicle. 21 (1/2): 89–93. doi:x.2307/26409602. ISSN 0032-8456. JSTOR 26409602.
  109. ^ Nobles, Gregory (July 31, 2020). "The Myth of John James Audubon". Audubon.org.
  110. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 306
  111. ^ "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature", American Masters, PBS. Retrieved Feb vii, 2009.
  112. ^ Van Biema, David (January 2, 2014). "Bay Psalm Book fetches $xiv.2 million in record auction". charlotteobserver.com. Archived from the original on Jan four, 2014. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
  113. ^ Ben Quinn (Nov 26, 2008). "John James Audubon's altogether historic past Google doodle". Guardian . Retrieved Apr 26, 2011.
  114. ^ Robert Penn Warren (Oct 1, 1998). The Collected Works of Robert Penn Warren. ISBN978-0-8071-2333-1 . Retrieved Oct 26, 2014.
  115. ^ Benét, Stephen Vincent (1987). A Book of Americans (Reprint ed.). Henry Holt and Co. ISBN0-8050-0284-7.
  116. ^ Govier, Katherine (2002). Cosmos. New York: Overlook Printing. ISBN1-58567-410-ix.
  117. ^ Howard, Maureen (2001). Big as Life: 3 Tales for Bound. New York: Viking. ISBN0-670-89978-X.
  118. ^ Brown, John Gregory (2001). Audubon's Picket. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN0-395-78607-X.
  119. ^ "John James Audubon ~ Drawn from Nature | American Masters | PBS". American Masters. July 25, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2021.
  120. ^ Turtledove, Harry (2011). Atlantis and Other Places. ROC. ISBN978-0-451-46387-6.
  121. ^ "Audubon: An American Adventure Takes Flying". Retrieved May 22, 2019.
  122. ^ Rhodes 2004
  123. ^ "Dauphin Island Park and Beach Audubon Bird Sanctuary on Dauphin Isle". Dauphin Isle Park and Embankment . Retrieved July 9, 2015.
  124. ^ "Audubon International". auduboninternational.org . Retrieved July 9, 2015.
  125. ^ "Scioto Audubon". Metro Parks – Central Ohio Park System . Retrieved July 9, 2015.
  126. ^ "Garland Texas – Audubon Recreation Center". garlandparks.com . Retrieved July ix, 2015.
  127. ^ "Audubon School". Retrieved December 31, 2019.
  128. ^ "Pascagoula River Audubon Centre". Pascagoula River Audubon Centre . Retrieved July xx, 2020.
  129. ^ "John Audubon House & Gallery". audubonhouse.org . Retrieved Oct three, 2020.
  130. ^ "Bird skin collections | Natural History Museum". www.nhm.ac.united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland . Retrieved March 23, 2022.
  131. ^ British Ornithologists' Social club.; Social club, British Ornithologists' (2016). Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. Vol. 136. London: British Ornithologists' Club.
  132. ^ IPNI.  Audubon.

Bibliography [edit]

  • Betimes. (1887) Sketch of J.J. Audubon. The Popular Science Monthly. pp. 687–692.
  • Arthur, Stanley Clisby (1937). Audubon; An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman. New Orleans: Harmanson. OCLC 1162643 view excerpts online
  • Audubon, Lucy Green Bakewell, ed. (1870). The Life of John James Audubon, the Naturalist. New York: 1000.P.Putnam & Sons.
  • Burroughs, J. (1902). John James Audubon. Boston: Small, Maynard & company. OCLC 648935
  • Chalmers, John (2003). Audubon in Edinburgh and his Scottish Associates. NMS Publishing, Edinburgh, 978 1 901663 79 2
  • Ford, Alice (1969). Audubon Past Himself. Garden Urban center NY: The Natural History Press
  • Ford, Alice (1964; revised 1988). John James Audubon. University of Oklahoma Press
  • Fulton, Maurice G. (1917). Southern Life in Southern Literature; selections of representative prose and poetry. Boston, New York [etc.]: Ginn and Co. OCLC 1496258 view online hither
  • Jackson E Christine (2013). John James Audubon and English Perspective Christine East Jackson
  • Herrick, Francis Hobart (1917). Aububon the naturalist: A History of his Life and Time. D. Appleton and Visitor, New York. Book IVolume Two (combined 2d 1938 edition)
  • Logan, Peter (2016). Audubon: America's Greatest Naturalist and His Voyage of Discovery to Labrador. San Francisco, California: Ashbryn Press. ISBN978-0-9972282-ane-ii.
  • Olson, Roberta J.M. (2012). Audubon's Aviary: The Original Watercolors for The Birds of America. New York: Skira/Rizzoli and New-York Historical Society. ISBN 978-0-8478-3483-9
  • Olson, Roberta J.Thou. (2021). "Hiding in Plain Sight: New Bear witness almost the Birth, Identity, and Strategic Pseudonyms of John James Audubon". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 163 (4): 129–150. doi:10.3099/MCZ70. ISSN 0027-4100. Discusses the series of names assigned to Audubon as a youth.
  • Punke, Michael (2007). Terminal Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-0-06-089782-6
  • Rhodes, Richard (2004). John James Audubon: The Making of an American. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41412-6
  • St. John, Mrs. Horace (1884). Life of Audubon, the naturalist of the New World, His Adventures and Discoveries. Philadelphia: J.B.Lippincott & Co.
  • Pocket-sized, E., Catling, Paul M., Cayouette, J., and Brookes, B (2009). Audubon: Beyond Birds: Plant Portraits and Conservation Heritage of John James Audubon. NRC Inquiry Printing, Ottawa, ISBN 978-0-660-19894-1
  • Souder, William (2005) Nether a Wild Heaven: John James Audubon and the Making of The Birds of America. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-86547-726-four
  • Streshinsky, Shirley (1993). Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness. New York: Villard Books, ISBN 0-679-40859-2

External links [edit]

  • Audubon Birds of America at New York Historical Society
  • Works by John James Audubon at Project Gutenberg
  • Works by or near John James Audubon at Internet Archive
  • Works past John James Audubon at Toronto Public Library
  • Works by John James Audubon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
  • John James Audubon at American Art Gallery
  • Audubon's Birds of America at the University of Pittsburgh, a complete high resolution digitization of all 435 double elephant folios also as his Ornithological Biography
  • The John James Audubon Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University
  • "Audubon biography", National Audubon Society
  • "Louise Hauss and David Brent Miller Audubon Collection", Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art, Auburn University
  • John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky
  • Audubon's Birds of America, podcast from the Beinecke Library, Yale University
  • John James Audubon and Audubon family letters, (ca. 1783–1845) from the Smithsonian Athenaeum of American Art
  • View works by John James Audubon online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  • Watercolors for Birds of America at the New York Historical Society
  • Burgwin Family Papers, 1844–1963, AIS.1971.14, Archives Service Center, Academy of Pittsburgh. Includes Audubon-Bakewell family materials.
  • John James Audubon Collection at the Library of Congress
  • Identification guide to Audubon impress editions
  • Blue jay: Corvus cristatus past John James Audubon at the Cleveland Public Library Art Drove
  • Victor Gifford Audubon Collection. Full general Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

masseywounieve1981.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Audubon

شاید این پست‌ها را دوست داشته باشید

ارسال یک نظر for "When Was John James Born When Was John James Style of Art"